Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte

Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte (ශ්‍රී ජයවර්ධනපුර කෝට්ටේ in Sinhalese and ஸ்ரீ ஜயவர்த்தனபுரம் கோட்டை in Tamil), also known as Sri Jayawardenapura or Kotte කෝට්ටේ, is the administrative capital of Sri Lanka. It is located beyond the eastern suburbs of the commercial capital Colombo and is often called New Capital territory. The Parliament of Sri Lanka has been based there since the formal inauguration of its new building on 29 April 1982.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
* 2 Legislature
* 3 Municipal structure
o 3.1 Suburbs in the local government area
* 4 Demographics
* 5 Infrastructure
o 5.1 Transport
o 5.2 Health
o 5.3 Education
o 5.4 Utilities
* 6 Climate
* 7 Sports and recreation
o 7.1 Security
* 8 Citations and notes
* 9 External links
o 9.1 Government
o 9.2 Education
o 9.3 History

[edit] History

The village of Darugama lay at the confluence of two streams, the Diyawanna Oya and the Kolonnawa Oya. As Darugama was a naturally secure place, it was not easy for enemies to enter it. Here, in the 13th century, a chieftain named Nissanka Alagakkonara built a fortress called Kotte (meaning 'Fortress') against invasion from the Jaffna Kingdom of Arya Chakaravarthi.[1]

Alagakkonara is mentioned by Ibn Batuta as ruling in Kurunegala, but other sources indicate that he was the Bandara (Guardian) of Raigama Korale (county) in the modern Kalutara District. Arya Chakravarthy's army was held by Alagakkonara in front of Kotte, while he defeated the enemy's invasion fleet at Panadura to the south-west.[2]

Kotte was a jala durgha (water fortress), in the shape of a triangle, with the Diyawanna Oya and Kolonnawa Oya marshes forming two long sides; along the shorter third (land) side a large moat (the 'inner moat') was dug. The fortress was nearly 2.5 km² (1 sq. mile) in area, fortified with ramparts of kabook or laterite rock, 2.5 m high and 10.7 m in breadth.[1]

In 1391, following the conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom by Prince Sapumal (Sembahap Perumal), Kotte was given the epithet 'Sri Jayawardhanapura' ('resplendent city of growing victory'). It became the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Kotte, which it remained until the end of the 16th century.

From the ramparts to the magnificent three storied buildings that housed the Kings Palace, Laterite and clay were the main raw material used in its construction. One of the places from which the laterite blocks were mined, could be seen even today inside the Ananda Sasthralaya (a local school) premises.

The main features of the capital city were [1]-

* the King's palace, with walls of quartz that sparkle in the moonlight (candrakanta pasana) and a golden spire, with beautiful flower gardens and springs of water.[3]
* the three storeyed Dalada Maligawa with Buddha's sacret tooth relic in it (Temple of the tooth)
* the Five storeyed "Arama" where sixty Buddhist Bhikkus resided, with a Sangha Nayaka (a high priest)as the chief incumbent.
* The Kings Treasure House
* the 'Kotavehara' at Baddagana, the only Buddhist temple of the city outside the moat and rampart.
* The Royal cemetery at Beddagana (Veherakanda memorial)
* The 'Angampitiya', the military parade and training ground just inside the inner moat.

The Portuguese arrived on the island in 1505 and were initially welcomed by the king. But they had militaristic and monopolistic intentions and gained control of the city by 1565. Failing to withstand repeated assaults by the forces of the neighbouring kingdom of Sitawaka, the city was abandoned by the Portuguese, who made Colombo their new capital.[4]

Like similar cities of that era, Sri Jayawardhanapura was built with security in mind. A rampart and moat protected the entire city. Traces of this moat and rampart are still visible today at certain places. Along parts of the rampart, encroachers have now built houses, garages and even toilets.

The urbanisation of Kotte restarted in the 19th century. The archaeological remains were torn up and used as building materials (a process that continues) — some of it even ending up in the Victoria Bridge, across the Kelani River.
[edit] Legislature

The New Parliament was inaugurated on 29 April 1982. It was built once a massive lake was formed by dredging the marshlands around the Diyawanna Oya. The new parliamentary buildings were built on Duwa, a 50,000 square metre (12 acre) island in the centre of the lake. The island (off Baddegana Road, Pita Kotte) had been used as a recreation and brawling spot for Portuguese soldiers in the last days of the Kotte era, alcohol being banned from the Royal City. It had belonged to E.W. Perera and had housed a chicken farm prior to being vested in the state. On 29 April 1982, the new parliamentary complex was declared open by the former president J.R. Jayawardene.

The process of relocating government institutions from the former capital of Colombo is still in progress.
[edit] Municipal structure

The Kotte Urban Development Council was created in the 1930s, with a modern building at Rajagiriya. It was succeeded by the Kotte Urban Council, which had a large section of its area removed and tagged onto the Colombo Municipal Council ward of Borella while the Battaramulla urban council was dissolved and a small section of Battaramulla tagged onto the Kotte Urban Council. The Kotte Urban Council became the Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte Municipal Council in 1997, with Chandra Silva as the first Mayor.

There are 20 Members of the Municipal Council (MMCs), elected on proportional representation. There are 10 wards, but these are now merely polling divisions, without individual representation.
[edit] Suburbs in the local government area

* Ethul Kotte
* Mirihana
* Madiwela
* Nawala
* Nugegoda
* Pita Kotte
* Rajagiriya

[edit] Demographics
Upmarket Residences under construction

Kotte is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious city. The population of Kotte is mainly Sinhalese, with a mix of Tamils, Muslims and Burghers (most of the Muslims and Indian Tamils living in the Rajagiriya area). There are small communities of people with Chinese, Malay and Indian origins living here as well as a small foreign expatriate community. According to the census of 2001 the demographics by ethnicity and religion is as follows.

Source
Ethnic & Religious Identification in Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte 2001
Sinhalese 101,331 87.49%
Sri Lankan Tamil 6,583 5.68%
Indian Tamil 786 0.68%
Sri Lankan Moor 4,031 3.48%
Burgher 1,367 1.18%
Malay 919 0.79%
Sri Lankan Chetty 65 0.06%
Baratha 57 0.05%
Other 687 0.59%
Total 115,826 100.00%
Buddhist 93,364
Hindu 4,550
Islam 5,465
Roman Catholic 8,659
Other Christian 3,618
Other 170


[edit] Infrastructure
The HSBC center
[edit] Transport

The only major railway station is at Nugegoda, on the Kelani Valley Line. Also at Nugegoda is the city's main bus terminus. There are subsidiary bus stands at Pita Kotte and Welikada. The city is well served by buses and there is a major CTB bus depot at Udahamulla.

A Passenger boat service is being finalised and would commence adjacent to Parliament Junction at Bataramulla and end at the Wellawatte canal near Marine drive. Each journey would take around 30 minutes. It would have stations at the Kotte Marsh, Nawala, Open University, Apollo Hospital, Wellawatte, Duplication road and at St Peter's College, Colombo.[5]
[edit] Health

There is a dedicated Eye & ENT hospital at Rajagiriya, and another Maternity hospital under construction in Nawala. A small private health centre, the Blue Cross Hospital at Rajagiriya, provides basic facilities for medical diagnostics, and there is a small nursing home in Park Lane, Welikada, much patronised by Maldivians.
[edit] Education

There are a number of State and Private Schools in Kotte. They are either "National schools" (run by the central government), "Government schools" (run by the Provincial Councils), Semi-government/Private schools or International schools (run by trusts and individuals).

The the second oldest in the island, formerly known as Christian College[2] is located in Ethul Kotte. The Ananda Sastralaya at Pita Kotte, is the the oldest Buddhist school in the city.

The Education Ministry as well as the Department of Examinations is based here.

A considerable number of the students living within the city limits study at government owned colleges and International schools in Colombo.
Speakers Residence

Located at Nawala is the Open University, Sri Lanka and at Nugegoda is the University of Sri Jayewardenepura. Public Libraries are conveniently located, and can be found at Nugegoda and Rajagiriya.
[edit] Utilities

The Kotte Municipal Council is responsible for road maintenance and door-to-door garbage collection in the city. They also are responsible for keeping Storm drains clean to cope with the heavy Tropical rains.

The largest telephone service provider is Sri Lanka Telecom, which previously held a monopoly over fixed line services, and provides fixed line as well as mobile services through its subsidiary Mobitel. Cell phone coverage is extensive, and the main service providers are Dialog Telekom, Mobitel, Tigo, Airtel and Hutch. Both GSM and CDMA services are available in the city and Broadband internet penetration is increasing. Mobitel supplies the city with 3.5G mobile solutions while Dialog Telekom provides 3G.

Electricity is provided by the Lanka Electricity Co. Ltd.
[edit] Climate
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Avg Temp °C
(°F) 26
(78) 26
(78) 27
(80) 28
(82) 28
(82) 27
(80) 27
(80) 27
(80) 27
(80) 26
(78) 26
(78) 26
(78) 26
(78)
Precipitation centimeters
(inches) 8.5
(3.3) 6.3
(2.5) 11.2
(4.4) 25.2
(9.9) 33.5
(13.2) 19.5
(7.7) 13
(5.1) 9.5
(3.7) 16.5
(6.5) 35.8
(14.1) 30.9
(12.2) 15.3
(6) 225.1
(88.6)

source: Weatherbase
[edit] Sports and recreation

Cricket is the most popular sport in the city as well as the country, and is usually played in the grounds around the city. Incidentally, Kotte's government representative in Parliament is the ICC Cricket World Cup winning captain Arjuna Ranatunga.

Football was at one time the most popular sport in the Colombo area, although it was eclipsed by Cricket after 1980. Four separate football clubs (Lido, Welikada Progress, Welikada Red Star and Welikada United) once used the EW Perera Park grounds at Welikada, Rajagiriya - where a pavilion was constructed in the 1970s. However, when the grounds were destroyed by the JR Jayawardene regime in the late 1970s, the football clubs disappeared. Football continued to be played at the grounds at Obeysekerapura in Rajagiriya.

In the 1990s the Kotte Municipal Council constructed the Chandra Silva Stadium, to replace the EW Perera Grounds. However, the UNP administration of 2002-2003 handed the grounds over to the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank. In 2007 the Municipality, with aid from the Ministry of Urban Development, completed the first stage of a new Chandra Silva Stadium on the rubbish dumping grounds behind the present Hong Kong Bank call Centre.

Recently, football has once more grown in popularity, and the sport now has a considerable following. The Football association's new training facility at Kotte is aimed at harnessing and developing the available talent and organizing the individual players into a cohesive team. It includes a football playground with a sprinkler system, gym and a host of other facilities.[6]

Other sports are mostly played in the numerous clubs and gyms, and include tennis, squash, billiards, horse riding, Indoor cricket, badminton and table tennis.

Horse riding can be pursued at the Premadasa Riding School in Nugegoda.
[edit] Security

There are many military checkpoints on the way to Kotte. These checkpoints are to see if people are carrying weapons to parliament.

Coordinates: 6°54′39″N 79°53′16.21″E / 6.91083°N 79.8878361°E / 6.91083; 79.8878361
[edit] Citations and notes

1. ^ a b c http://www.ds.gov.lk/ds/kotte/english/index.php?p=cultural_background
2. ^ "Sri Lanka: A Country Study." (html). Russell R. Ross and Andrea Matles Savada. http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/7.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
3. ^ Edmund Jayasuriya (Tr), sälaḷihini sandeśa of Toṭagamuve Srī Rāhula Thera, Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, 2002, ISBN 955-613-144-2
4. ^ "European encroachment and dominance" (html). U.S. Library of Congress. http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/8.htm,. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
5. ^ "Canal transport to ease traffic pile up ." (html). Chanuka Mannapperuma. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2005/07/10/new36.html. Retrieved 2005-07-10.
6. ^ "National training centre for Football at Beddegana" (html). Sri Lanka Football. http://www.srilankafootball.com/ffsl/goal_project2.shtml. Retrieved 2007-02-26.

[edit] External links

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[edit] Government

* Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal
* The Parliament of Sri Lanka
* CIA Fact book
* Ministry of Defence : Sri Lanka

[edit] Education

* University of Sri Jayawardenepura
* Nugegoda Public Library

[edit] History

* 1400-1565 A. D
* Decline of the Sinhalese Kingdom
* Kotte's History
* Ruins of the ancient Kotte Kingdom

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East Asia

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1 Often considered part of Central Asia. 2 Otherwise known as Taiwan. 3 Full name is Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte. 4 Formal. 5 Administrative. 6 See Positions on Jerusalem for details on Jerusalem's status. † Transcontinental country. ‡ Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe.₮ Entirely in Melanesia but having socio-political connections with Southeast Asia.

List of cities in Sri Lanka

City name ↓ Province ↓ District ↓ Population[1] ↓ Area (Km²) ↓ Density (/km²) ↓ Founded ↓ Homepage ↓
Colombo Western Province Colombo District 682,046 37.31 [1]
Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia Western Province Colombo District 232,220
Moratuwa Western Province Colombo District 202,021
Negombo Western Province Gampaha District 142,451
Trincomalee Eastern Province Trincomalee District 131,954 7.5 [2]
Kotte Western Province Colombo District 125,914 17
Kandy Central Province Kandy District 119,186 [3]
Kalmunai Eastern Province Ampara District 103,879
Vavuniya Northern Province Vavuniya District 101,143
Jaffna Northern Province Jaffna District 98,193 20.2 [4]
Galle Southern Province Galle District 97,209
Batticaloa Eastern Province Batticaloa District 95,489 [5]
Katunayake Western Province Gampaha District 90 231
Battaramulla Western Province Colombo District 84,200
Dambulla Central Province Matale District 75,290
Daluguma Western Province Gampaha District 74,129
Maharagama Western Province Colombo District 74,117
Kotikawatta Western Province Colombo District 71,879
Chavakacheri Northern Province Jaffna District 70,273 19.4
Anuradhapura North Central Province Anuradhapura District 66,951
Kolonnawa Western Province Colombo District 63,734
Hendala Western Province Gampaha District 57,359
Point Pedro Northern Province Jaffna District 51,086 11.65
Ratnapura Sabaragamuwa Province Ratnapura District 50,764
Puttalam North Western Province Puttalam District 49,517
Badulla Uva Province Badulla District 46,625
Keselwatta Western Province Kalutara District 45,877
Matara Southern Province Matara District 45,445
Valvettithurai Northern Province Jaffna District 44,447
Welisara Western Province Gampaha District 41,582
Matale Central Province Matale District 39,869
Kattankudy Eastern Province Batticaloa District 39,283
Homagama Western Province Colombo District 38,590
Kalutara Western Province Kalutara District 38,280
Mulleriyawa Western Province Colombo District 37,339
Mannar Island Northern Province Mannar District 36,940
Beruwala Western Province Kalutara District 34,907
Ragama Western Province Gampaha District 34,543
Kandana Western Province Gampaha District 33,648
Panadura Western Province Kalutara District 33,434
Ja-Ela Western Province Gampaha District 30,760
Wattala Western Province Gampaha District 30,086
Kelaniya Western Province Gampaha District 29,472
Kurunegala North Western Province Kurunegala District 29,093
Peliyagoda Western Province Gampaha District 28,981
Nuwara Eliya Central Province Nuwara Eliya District 27,449
Gampola Central Province Kandy District 26,481
Seethawakapura Western Province Colombo District 25,447
Eravur Eastern Province Batticaloa District 24,581
Chilaw North Western Province Puttalam District 24,541
Weligama Southern Province Matara District 23,492
Ambalangoda Southern Province Galle District 20,950
Kegalla Sabaragamuwa Province Kegalle District 18,083
Ampara Eastern Province Ampara District 18,048
Hatton Central Province Kandy District 16,790
Kilinochchi Northern Province Kilinochchi District 15,126
Nawalapitiya Central Province Kandy District 14,685
Balangoda Sabaragamuwa Province Ratnapura District 12,688
Hambantota Southern Province Hambantota District 12,002
Monaragala Uva Province Moneragala District 10,633
Tangalle Southern Province Hambantota District 10,528
Horana Western Province Kalutara District 8,649
Gampaha Western Province Gampaha District 8,485
Bandarawela Uva Province Badulla District 7,971
Wattegama Uva Province Moneragala District 7,921
Kuliyapitiya North Western Province Kurunegala District 7,508
Minuwangoda Western Province Gampaha District 7,241
Haputale Uva Province Badulla District 4,979
Talawakele Central Province Nuwara Eliya District 3,458
Harispattuwa Central Province Kandy District 1,690
Kadugannawa Central Province Kandy District 1,323
Sigiriya Central Province Matale District 1,068
[edit] Cities with Population 500,000+
City name ↓ Province ↓ District ↓ Population[1] ↓ Area (Km²) ↓ Density (/km²) ↓ Founded ↓ Homepage ↓
Colombo Western Colombo District 682,046 37.31 [6]
[edit] Cities with Population 100,000+
City name ↓ Province ↓ District ↓ Population[1] ↓ Area (Km²) ↓ Density (/km²) ↓ Founded ↓ Homepage ↓
Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia Western Province Colombo District 232,220
Moratuwa Western Province Colombo District 202,021
Negombo Western Province Gampaha District 142,451
Trincomalee Eastern Province Trincomalee District 131,954 7.5 [7]
Kotte Western Province Colombo District 125,914 17
Kandy Central Province Kandy District 119,186 [8]
Kalmunai Eastern Province Ampara District 103,879
Vavuniya Northern Province Vavuniya District 101,143
[edit] Cities with Population 50,000+
City name ↓ Province ↓ District ↓ Population[1] ↓ Area (Km²) ↓ Density (/km²) ↓ Founded ↓ Homepage ↓
Jaffna Northern Province Jaffna District 98,193 20.2 [9]
Galle Southern Province Galle District 97,209
Batticaloa Eastern Province Batticaloa District 95,489 [10]
Katunayake Western Province Gampaha District 90 231
Battaramulla Western Province Colombo District 84,200
Dambulla Central Province Matale District 75,290
Daluguma Western Province Gampaha District 74,129
Maharagama Western Province Colombo District 74,117
Kotikawatta Western Province Colombo District 71,879
Chavakacheri Northern Province Jaffna District 70,273 19.4
Anuradhapura North Central Province Anuradhapura District 66,951
Kolonnawa Western Province Colombo District 63,734
Hendala Western Province Gampaha District 57,359
Point Pedro Northern Province Jaffna District 51,086 11.65
Ratnapura Sabaragamuwa Province Ratnapura District 50,764
[edit] Cities with Population 10,000+
City name ↓ Province ↓ District ↓ Population[1] ↓ Area (Km²) ↓ Density (/km²) ↓ Founded ↓ Homepage ↓
Puttalam North Western Province Puttalam District 49,517
Badulla Uva Province Badulla District 46,625
Keselwatta Western Province Kalutara District 45,877
Matara Southern Province Matara District 45,445
Valvettithurai Northern Province Jaffna District 44,447
Welesara Western Province Gampaha District 41,582
Matale Central Province Matale District 39,869
Kattankudy Eastern Province Batticaloa District 39,283
Homagama Western Province Colombo District 38,590
Kalutara Western Province Kalutara District 38,280
Mulleriyawa Western Province Colombo District 37,339
Mannar Island Northern Province Mannar District 36,940
Beruwala Western Province Kalutara District 34,907
Ragama Western Province Gampaha District 34,543
Kandana Western Province Gampaha District 33,648
Panadraya Western Province Kalutara District 33,434
Ja-Ela Western Province Gampaha District 30,760
Wattala Western Province Gampaha District 30,086
Kelaniya Western Province Gampaha District 29,472
Kurunegala North Western Province Kurunegala District 29,093
Peliyagoda Western Province Gampaha District 28,981
Nuwara Eliya Central Province Nuwara Eliya District 27,449
Gampola Central Province Kandy District 26,481
Seethawakapura Western Province Colombo District 25,447
Eravur Eastern Province Batticaloa District 24,581
Halawata North Western Province Puttalam District 24,541
Weligama Southern Province Matara District 23,492
Ambalangoda Southern Province Galle District 20,950
Kegalla Sabaragamuwa Province Kegalle District 18,083
Ampara Eastern Province Ampara District 18,048
Hatton Central Province Kandy District 16,790
Kilinochchi Northern Province Kilinochchi District 15,126
Nawalapitiya Central Province Kandy District 14,685
Balangoda Sabaragamuwa Province Ratnapura District 12,688
Hambantota Southern Province Hambantota District 12,002
Monaragala Uva Province Moneragala District 10,633
Tanggalla Southern Province Hambantota District 10,528
[edit] Cities with Population Under 10,000
City name ↓ Province ↓ District ↓ Population[1] ↓ Area (Km²) ↓ Density (/km²) ↓ Founded ↓ Homepage ↓
Horana Western Province Kalutara District 8,649
Gampaha Western Province Gampaha District 8,485
Bandarawela Uva Province Badulla District 7,971
Wattegama Uva Province Moneragala District 7,921
Kuliyapitiya North Western Province Kurunegala District 7,508
Minuwangoda Western Province Gampaha District 7,241
Haputale Western Province Badulla District 4,979
Talawakele Central Province Nuwara Eliya District 3,458
Harispattuwa Central Province Kandy District 1,690
Kadugannawa Central Province Kandy District 1,323
Sigiriya Central Province Matale District 1,068

Sri Lanka Army

The Sri Lanka Army is the oldest and largest of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces and is responsible for land-based military and humanitarian operations. Established as the Ceylon Army in 1949, it was renamed when Sri Lanka became an independent republic in 1972. As of the year 2000, the Army had approximately 150,000 regular and reserve personnel and 18,000 National Guardsmen[1][2] and comprises 13 operational divisions, one air-mobile brigade, one commando brigade, one special forces brigade, one independent armored brigade, three mechanized infantry brigades and over 40 infantry brigades.[3]. Since the 1980s the army has been engaged in the Sri Lankan civil war.

The professional head of the Sri Lanka Army is the Commander of the Army, currently Lieutenant General Jagath Jayasuriya[4].. The Commander-in-Chief of the Sri Lankan Military is the President of the country, who heads the National Security Council through the Ministry of Defense, which is the highest level of military command charged with formulating, executing defence policy and procurements for the armed forces.[5]. However operations of the Sri Lanka Army are coordinated by the Joint Operations Command, with other two armed forces.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
o 1.1 Ancient and pre-colonial times
o 1.2 Colonial era
+ 1.2.1 Portuguese and Dutch rule (1505-1796 AD)
+ 1.2.2 British rule (1798-1948 AD)
o 1.3 Post-independence
o 1.4 1970–Present
+ 1.4.1 Peacekeeping
# 1.4.1.1 Peacekeeping Sex Scandal
* 2 Current deployments
o 2.1 Domestic
o 2.2 Foreign
* 3 Organization Structure
o 3.1 Administrative
+ 3.1.1 Regiments & Corps
o 3.2 Operational Command
+ 3.2.1 Combat formations
* 4 Training
o 4.1 Training establishments
* 5 Personnel
o 5.1 Parama Weera Vibhushanaya recipients
o 5.2 Notable fallen members
o 5.3 Women in the Sri Lanka Army
o 5.4 Complaints over survivors’ benefits
* 6 Equipment
o 6.1 Armour
o 6.2 Artillery
o 6.3 Infantry weapons
* 7 See also
* 8 Further reading
* 9 References
* 10 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Ancient and pre-colonial times

The first military engagements in Sri Lankan history were marked by the advent of King Vijaya, a Bengal prince who landed along with his followers on the beaches of northwestern Sri Lanka around 543 BC. Prince Vijaya and his followers occupied the lands of the native Veddah people. Repeated incursions by South Indians, particularly the Cholas, into Sri Lankan territory occurred throughout the next few centuries and led to the engagement of the rival forces in battle.[6] In one famous encounter, Sinhalese King Dutugemunu (200 BC) raised an army of eleven thousand inhabitants in his battle against the Chola invader King Elara, whom he eventually defeated. King Dutugemunu's organizational skills, bravery and chivalry are famous and his battles have gone down in history as outstanding offensive operations.[7]

Other Sri Lankan rulers whose military achievements stand out include King Gajabâhu (113 AD), who sailed to India to bring back his captured soldiers, and King Dhatusena (433 AD) who is credited with repulsing numerous Indian invasions and for organizing a naval build-up to deter seaborne attacks. He also had the foresight to cover his defenses with artillery. Vijayabâhu I (1001 AD) was another warrior king who dislodged Indian invaders and united the country. Parakramabahu the Great (1153 AD) was an outstanding monarch of the Polonnaruwa period of Sri Lankan history, and his accomplishments as a military leader and a great administrator are noteworthy. His reign included a military expedition to Burma (Myanmar) in retaliation for indignities inflicted on his envoys and Burmese interference in the elephant trade. This marked the first overseas expedition in Sri Lankan military history. It is also reported that Parakramabahu's fame was such that his assistance was sought by South Indian rulers who were involved in internecine struggles. Another strong ruler in the pre-colonial era was Parâkramabâhu VI, who defeated Indian invaders, united the island and ruled it from capital Sri Jayawardhanapura, Kotte.[7] Although the known epigraphical records do not indicate that the Sri Lankan rulers had a full-time standing army at their disposal, there is evidence supported by legend, designation, name, place and tradition that prove there were 'stand-by' equestrian, elephant, and infantry divisions to ensure royal authority at all times. Militias were raised as the necessity arose, and the soldiers returned to their pursuits, mainly for farming, after their spell of military duty.[7]
[edit] Colonial era

Parts of Sri Lanka came under the control of three colonial European powers, namely the Portuguese in the 16th century, the Dutch in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century. Yet, until the entire island was ceded to the British in 1815, regional kingdoms maintained most of their independent defense forces and were able to successfully repulse repeated thrusts by the European armies. However the British, unlike their counterparts, were not primarily restricted to maritime power, and thus had the capability to bring the entire island under their control and to integrate locals into the British defense forces.[7]
[edit] Portuguese and Dutch rule (1505-1796 AD)

In the beginning of the 16th century, modern Europe first came in contact with Sri Lanka, which was then referred to as Ceylon. In 1505 a Portuguese fleet, while operating in the Indian seas against Arab traders, was blown off course and landed at Galle, on the southern coast of the island.[8] In 1517 the Portuguese re-appeared, and with the consent of the Sinhalese King established a trading post in Colombo. Having initiated contact with Sri Lanka as traders, the Portuguese soon made themselves political masters of the western seaboard. Numerous forts were soon established, and features of European civilization were introduced.[7]

The Portuguese are credited with the introduction of European-style fortresses to Sri Lanka during this era. Although some locals already possessed military training and fighting experience, there is no evidence that the Portuguese employed local inhabitants into their own forces. Thus the Portuguese were forced to restrict their presence in the island due to their small numbers and their efforts were more focussed toward projecting maritime power.[7]

In 1602 Dutch explorers first landed in Sri Lanka, which was then under Portuguese control. By 1658 they had completely ousted the Portuguese from the coastal regions of the island. Much like the Portuguese, they did not employ locals in their military, and preferred to live in isolation, pursuing their interests in trade and commerce. Like the Portuguese, they defended their forts with their own forces, but unlike the Portuguese, Dutch forces employed Swiss and Malay mercenaries. The Dutch Forts in Jaffna, Galle, Matara, Batticaloa and Trincomalee were sturdily built and are considered a tribute to their military engineering skills. Also, like the Portuguese, the Dutch focussed on maritime power and although they had the capability to develop and use local forces, they chose to isolate themselves from the local population.[7]
[edit] British rule (1798-1948 AD)

The British Empire then ousted the Dutch from the coastal areas of the country, and sought to conquer the independent Kandyan Kingdom. In the face of repeated British assaults, the Kandyans were forced into a degree of guerrilla warfare and fared well against their superior British adversaries.[7]

Initially the British stationed their forces, which included naval vessels, artillery troops and infantry, to defend of the island nation from other foreign powers, using the natural harbor of Trincomalee as their headquarters in Sri Lanka. In 1796, the Swiss and Malay mercenaries who were previously in the service of the Dutch were transferred to the British East India Company. While the Swiss De Meuron's Regiment was eventually disbanded in Canada in 1822, the Malays, who initially formed a Malay Corps, were converted into the 1st Ceylon Regiment in 1802 and placed under a British commanding officer. In the same year, the British became the first foreign power to raise a Sinhalese unit, which was named the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the Sepoy Corps.[7]

In 1803 the 3rd Ceylon Regiment was created with Moluccans and recruits from Penang. All these regiments fought alongside British troops in the Kandyan wars which began in 1803. Throughout the following years, more Sinhalese and Malays were recruited to these regiments, and in 1814 the 4th Regiment was raised, which was comprised entirely of African troops. It was later renamed as the Ceylon Rifle Regiment. Eventually, the Kandyan Kingdom was ceded to the British in 1815, and with that they gained control over the whole island. Resistance to British occupation cropped up almost instantly. During the first half-century of occupation, the British faced a number of uprisings, and were forced to maintain a sizable army in order to guarantee their control over the island. After the Matale Rebellion lead by Puran Appu in 1848, in which a number of Sinhalese recruits defected to the side of the rebels, the recruitment of Sinhalese to the British forces was temporarily halted.[7]

Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers

The second phase in the employment of non-British personnel commenced in 1861 after the enactment of an ordinance designed to authorize the creation of a Volunteer Corps in the island. It was designated the Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers (CLIV). This move compensated for the disbandment of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment in 1874. The Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers was originally administered as a single unit. However, over the years various sections of the volunteers grew large enough to become independent from their parent unit. The different units that emerged from the Volunteer Force were the

* Ceylon Artillery Volunteers
* Ceylon Mounted Infantry (CMI)
* Ceylon Volunteer Medical Corps
* Cadet Battalion Ceylon Light Infantry
* Ceylon Engineers
* Ceylon Supply & Transport Corps
* Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps (CPRC).[7]

Ceylon Defence Force

Main article: Ceylon Defence Force
First Prime Minister of Independent Sri Lanka Hon. D.S.Senanayaka visiting the 1st battalion of the CLI at the Echelon Square and watching volunteers being trained to handle light machine guns.

In 1910 the name of the military was formally changed to the Ceylon Defence Force (CDF). It continued to grow throughout the early period of the 20th century. The CDF saw active service when a contingent of the Ceylon Mounted Infantry (CMI) in 1900, and a contingent of the Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps (CPRC) in 1902, took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa. Their services were recognized by the presentation in 1902 of a color to the CMI, and a presentation in 1904 of a banner to the CPRC. In 1922, the CDF was honored by the presentation of the King's and Regimental colors to the Ceylon Light Infantry (CLI).[7]

During the First World War, many volunteers from the Defence Force traveled to England and joined the British Army, and many of them were killed in action. One of them mentioned by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was Private Jacotine of the CLI, who was the last man left alive in his unit at the Battle of Lys, and who continued to fight for 20 minutes before he was killed.[9]

In 1939, the CDF was mobilized and an enormous expansion took place which required the raising of new units such as the Ceylon Signals Corps, the Auxiliary Territorial Service (Ceylon) and also the Colombo Town Guard, which had been previously disbanded, but was later re-formed to meet military requirements. During the Second World War, Britain assumed direct control over the Armed Forces of Ceylon.[10]
[edit] Post-independence
Brigadier James Sinclair, Earl of Caithness inspecting a guard of honour wearing khaki drill.

At the end of World War II, CDF which had increased in size during the war began demobilization.In 1948 Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain, becoming a Dominion within the commonwealth and a year earlier Ceylon entered into the bi-lateral Anglo-Ceylonese Defence Agreement of 1947. This followed by the Army Act No. 17 of 1949 which was passed by Parliament on April 11, 1949 and formalized in Gazette Extraordinary No. 10028 of October 10, 1949 marked the creation of the Ceylon Army, consisting of a regular and a volunteer force, the later being the successor of the disbanded CDF[11][12]. Therefor October 10, 1949 is considered the Ceylon Army was raised, and October 10 is celebrated annually as Army day. The Defence Agreement of 1947 provided the assurance that British would come to the aid of Ceylon in the event it was attacked by a foreign power and provided British military advises to build the country's military. Brigadier James Sinclair, Earl of Caithness was appointed as general officer commanding Ceylon Army, as such becoming the first commander of the Ceylon Army.

The initial requirement was to raise an artillery regiment, an engineer squadron, an infantry battalion, a medical unit, and a service corps company. For much of the 1950s the army was preoccupied with the task of building it self and training existing and new personal. To this aim the British Army Training Team (BATT) advisory group carried out training for ex-members of the CDF within the Ceylon Army, senior officers were sent to the British Army Staff College, Camberley and some attached to units of the British Army of the Rhine to gain field experience. New officers were sent for training at Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst which continued until the 1960s and both officers and other ranks were sent to specialist training courses in Britain, India, Pakistan and Malaya. There were no formations and all units were structured to directly function under the Army Headquarters. However temporary field headquarters were to be formed at the time requirement arose[12].

Due to a lack of any major external threats the growth of the army was slow and the primary duties of the army quickly moved towards internal security by the mid 50's, same time as the first Ceylonese Commander Major General Anton Muttukumaru took command of the army. The first internal security operation of the Ceylon Army began in 1952 code named Operation Monty to counter the influx of illegal South Indian immigrants brought in by smugglers on the north-western cost, in support of Royal Ceylon Navy coastal patrols and police operations. This was expanded and renamed as Task Force Anti-Illicit Immigration (TaFII) in 1963 and continued up till 1981 when it was disbanded. The Army was mobilized to help the police to restore peace under provincial emergency regulations during the 1953 hartal, the 1956 Gal Oya Valley riots and in 1958 it was deployed for the first time under emergency regulations throughout the island during the 1958 Riots[13].

During the 1950s and 1960s the army was called apron to carry to essential services when the workers went on strike which were organized by the left wing parties and trade unions for various reasons, the most notable was the 1961 Colombo Port strike, during which ships threatened to by pass Colombo port and the country almost staved. To counter these common strikes several units were formed, who were employed in development work when there were no strikes[13].

In 1962 several volunteer officers attempted a military coup, which was stopped hours before it was lunched. This attempted coup effect the military to a great extent, since the government mistrusted the military, it reduced the size and growth of the army, especially the volunteer force, with several units being dissbanded. In May 1972, when Ceylon proclaimed it self a republic and changed its name to from the Dominion of Ceylon to the Republic of Sri Lanka, all Army units were renamed accordingly.[14]
[edit] 1970–Present

After successfully defeating the insurgency led by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) in 1971, the army was confronted with a new conflict, this time with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and other Tamil militant groups. The war escalated to the point where India was asked to intervene as a peacekeeping force. This was later seen as a tactical error, as the Indian Peace Keeping Force united nationalist elements such as the JVP to politically support the LTTE in their call to evict the IPKF. The war with the LTTE was halted following the signing of a ceasefire agreement in 2002 with the help of international mediation. However, renewed violence broke out in December 2005 and following the collapse of peace talks, the Army has been involved in the heavy fighting that has resumed in the north and east of the country.
Main article: Sri Lankan Civil War

Since 1980 the army has undertaken many operations against the LTTE rebels. The major operations conducted by the army eventually lead to the recapture of Jaffna and other rebel strongholds. In May 2009, the Tamil Tigers officially gave up their armed struggle for Tamil Ilam and with that marked the end of an era in Sri Lankan combat[15].

Major combat operations

* 1971 JVP Insurrection (1971-1972)
* Eelam War I (1976-1987)
o Vadamarachchi Operation
* JVP Uprising (1987-1990)
* Eelam War II (1990-1995)
o Operation Sea Breeze
o Operation Thrividha Balaya
o Operation Balavegaya I, II



* Eelam War III (1995-2002)
o Operation Riviresa
o Operation Jayasikurui
o Operation Rivibala
o Operation Ranagosa
o Operation Rivikirana
o Operation Kinihira I, II, III/IV, V/VI, VII, VIII ,IX



* Eelam War IV (2006-2009)
o Eastern Theater
+ Operations in Thoppigala
o Northern Theater
+ Battle of the Forward Defence Lines

[edit] Peacekeeping

The Sri Lanka Army has taken part in two peacekeeping missions with United Nations over the course of its history. First assignment was in the Congo (ONUC) (1960 - 1963). Most recently, following the signing of a ceasefire agreement was signed between the government and the LTTE in 2002, Sri Lankan forces were invited by the United Nations to be part of the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti.[16] The Sri Lanka Light Infantry was selected to be part of the peacekeeping operations, and training programs on counter revolutionary warfare were conducted for the troops in Kukuleganga. Following the successful completion of the training, a battalion under the command of Col. K.A.D.A. Karunasekara left for Haiti on October 22, 2004. In the process of the peacekeeping operations, 2 soldiers were killed in a raid in Petit-Goave.[17] After over 6 months of service, the first contingent of the peacekeeping force returned to Sri Lanka on May 17, 2005[16]. In December 2007, 7th rotation of the Sri Lankan contingent had been deployed with a force of 991 officers and other ranks, many of the those deployed have been awarded the United Nations Medal for their services.[18]
[edit] Peacekeeping Sex Scandal

In November 2007, 114[19] members of the 950 member Sri Lankan Army peacekeeping mission in Haiti, were accused of sexual misconduct and abuse.[20][21] 108 members, including 3 officers of the 950-member-strong Sri Lanka peacekeeping contingent is being sent back after being implicated in alleged misconduct and sexual abuse.[22] UN spokeswoman Michele Montas said: "The United Nations and the Sri Lankan government deeply regret any sexual exploitation and abuse that has occurred."[21] The Sri Lankan Officials claim that there is little tangible evidence on this case.[19] After inquiry into the case the UN Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) has concluded ‘acts of sexual exploitation and abuse (against children) were frequent and occurred usually at night, and at virtually every location where the contingent personnel were deployed.’ The OIOS is assisting in the pending legal proceedings initiated by the Sri Lankan Government and has said charges should include rape "because it involves children under 18 years of age".[23]
[edit] Current deployments

As of present, the bulk of the Sri Lankan Army is deployed for domestic defensive and combat operations, while a sizable foreign deployment is maintained.
[edit] Domestic

Due to the Sri Lankan Civil War the army has been on a constant mobilized (including reservist) state since the 1980s (except for a brief period from 2002-2005). The majority of the army as been deployed in the North and Eastern provinces of the country, which includes 11 Divisions coming under three operational headquarters. The army is also based in other parts of the island for internal security including a Division for the defense of the capital.
[edit] Foreign

Since 2004 the army has maintained a battalion sized unit with support personal totaling around 1000 personal in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.[24]
[edit] Organization Structure

The professional head of the army is the Commander of the Army, at present Lieutenant General Jagath Jayasuriya. He is assisted by the Chief of Staff of the Army, currently Major General Mendaka Samarasinghe[25]. The Commandant of the Volunteer Force is head of the Army Volunteer Force and is responsible for the administration and recruitment of all reserve units and personal. The Army Headquarters, situated in Colombo is the main administrative and the operational headquarters of the Sri Lanka Army.

In late 1987, the army had a total estimated strength of up to 40,000 troops, about evenly divided between regular army personnel and reservists on active duty. The approximately 20,000 regular army troops represented a significant increase over the 1983 strength of only 12,000. Aggressive recruitment campaigns following the 1983 riots raised this number to 16,000 by early 1985.[26] By 2007, the Army had expanded to over 120,000 personnel[1]. In June 2009, Sri Lanka announced plans to create a "Tamil regiment" to promote integration in the army[27]
[edit] Administrative

The Army Headquarters is divided into a number of branches, namely the General Staff (GS) branch responsible for coordination of operations and training and the Adjutant General's (AGs) branch responsible for personal administration, welfare, medical services and rehabilitation. The Quarter Master General's (QMGs) branch is responsible for feeding, transport, movement and construction and maintenance. The Master General of Ordnance's (MGOs) branch is responsible for procurement and maintenance of vehicles and special equipment.[28] The Military Secretary's Branch is responsible for handling all matters pertaining to officers such as promotions, postings and discipline. Each branch is headed by an officer in the rank of Major General who is directly responsible to the Commander of the Army for the smooth functioning of the Branch. Under each Branch, there are several Directorates, each headed by a Brigadier.[28]

The Headquarters of field formations each have its own staff. For instance a divisional headquarters is divided into a GS branch as an AQ branch, each headed by a Colonel and is responsible for operations & training and administration & logistics respectively. Similarly, a Brigade Major and Major AQ is responsible for operations and administration in a brigade.[28]

Like the Indian Army, the Sri Lanka Army has largely retained the British-style regimental system that it inherited upon independence. The individual regiments (such as the Sri Lanka Light Infantry and the Sinha Regiment) operate independently and recruit their own members. Officers tend to remain in a single battalion throughout their careers. The infantry battalion, the basic unit of organization in field operations, includes five companies of four platoons each. Typical platoon have three squads (sections) of ten personnel each. In addition to the basic infantry forces, a commando regiment was also established in 1986. Support for the infantry is provided by an armoured regiment, five reconnaissance regiments, three mechanized infantry regiments, five field artillery regiments, a rocket artillery regiment, three commando regiments , three special forces regiments, six field engineering regiments, five signals battalions, a medical corps, and a variety of logistics units.[26]
[edit] Regiments & Corps
Main article: List of current Sri Lanka Army regiments and corps

[11]
Sri Lanka Armoured Corps units in a combat operation.
Name Headquarters Subunits
SLAC-1-.png Armoured Corps Rock House Army Camp, Colombo Six regular regiments and a volunteer regiment.
SLA-1.png Artillery Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda Seven regular regiments and two volunteer regiments.
SLE.png Engineers Army Headquarters, Colombo Six regular regiments and one volunteer regiment.
SLSC.png Signals Corps Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda Nine regular regiments and one volunteer regiment.
SLLI Crest.gif Light Infantry Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda Ten regular battalions, five volunteer battalions.
SLSR.png Sinha Regiment Ambepussa Camp, Ambepussa Seven regular battalions, five volunteer battalions and a head quarter battalion.
GW.png Gemunu Watch Kuruwitha Army camp, Ratnapura Nine regular units, four volunteer units.
GR.png Gajaba Regiment Saliyapura Camp, Anuradhapura Six regular battalions and five volunteer battalions.
VIR.png Vijayabahu Infantry Regiment Boyagane Camp, Kurunegala Eight regular battalions and four volunteer battalions.
Mechanized Infantry Regiment N/A Three regular battalions.
President's Guard - Sri Lanka Army.jpg President's Guard N/A N/A
SLCR.png Commando Regiment Ganemulla, Gampaha Four regular regiments.
SLASF.png Special Forces Regiment Seeduwa, Gampaha Three regular regiments.
MIC-SLA.png Military Intelligence Corps Colombo Two regular battalions.
ESR.png Engineer Services Regiment Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda Three regular regiments and a volunteer regiment.
SLASC.png Service Corps Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda Four regular units and one volunteer unit.
SLAMC.png Medical Corps Colombo Two regular units and one volunteer unit.
SLAOC.png Ordnance Corps Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda Three regular ordnance battalions and one volunteer ordnance battalion.
Electrical and Mechanical Engineers Slave Island, Colombo Three regular regiments and one volunteer regiment.
SLCMP.png Corps of Military Police Polhengoda, Colombo Three regular regiments.
SLAGSC.png General Service Corps Panagoda Cantonment, Panagoda One regular unit and a volunteer unit.
SLAWC.png Women's Corps Army Headquarters, Colombo One regular unit and 4 volunteers unit.
SLARC.png Rifle Corps Army Headquarters, Colombo Two volunteer battalions.
SLAPC.png Pioneer Corps N/A One volunteer unit.
SLNG.png National Guard Kurunegala 32 volunteer battalions.
[edit] Operational Command

Organized and controlled by the Army General Staff at Army HQ, various formations are raised from time to time to suit various security requirements and operation in the country and overs seas. The Army at present has deployed 12 Divisions, 7 task forces and several independent brigades. Except for the 11 Division based at the Panagoda Cantonment which is responsible for the maintenance of capability for the defence of the capital, all other divisions, task forces and brigades are deployed for operations in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka, coming under six regional commands known as Security Forces Headquarters, which are the Security Forces Headquarters Jaffna (SFHQ-J), Wanni (SFHQ-W), East (SFHQ-E), Kilinochchi (SFHQ-KLN), Mullaittivu (SFHQ-MLT) & South (SFHQ-S)

Each SFHQ and most divisions are commanded by a General Officer Commanding in the rank of Major General. A SFHQ has several divisions under its command and each division is further divided into brigades. Each brigade is commanded by an officer in the rank of Brigadier and has a number of Infantry battalions, support arms (Artillery, Engineers and Signals) and support services (Service Corps, Engineering Services, Ordnance Corps, Electrical and Mechanical Engineers) under assigned to it. There are also several independent brigade (Air Mobile Brigade, Armored Brigade, etc)

In other parts of the country, there are Area and Sub-Area Headquarters. Armour, Artillery, Engineers and Signals Units are grouped under Brigade Headquarters of their own arm; Armored Brigade, Artillery Brigade and so on.
[edit] Combat formations
Main article: List of current Sri Lanka Army formations

[29]

Security Forces Headquarters - Jaffna (SFHQ-J)

* 51 Division, based in Jaffna
* 52 Division, based in the Jaffna Peninsula
* 55 Division, based in Elephant Pass Military Base, Jaffna Peninsula [29]

Security Forces Headquarters - Wanni (SFHQ-W) [29]

* 56 Division, operating in the Vavuniya District
* 61 Division, operating in the Vavuniya District
* 21 Division
* Area Headquarters Mannar, Mannar

Security Forces Headquarters - East (SFHQ-E)

* 22 Division, based in Trincomalee[30]
* 23 Division, based in Poonani, Batticaloa District [31]

Security Forces Headquarters - Kilinochchi (SFHQ-KLN)[29][32]

* 57 Division, operating in the Kilinochchi District
* Task Force 3, operating in the Kilinochchi District
* Task Force 5, operating in the Kilinochchi District
* Task Force 6, operating in the Kilinochchi District
* Task Force 8, operating in the Kilinochchi District

Security Forces Headquarters - Mullaittivu (SFHQ-MLT) [29]

* 59 Division, operating in the Mullaittivu District
* Task Force 2, operating in the Mullaittivu District
* Task Force 4, operating in the Mullaittivu District

Security Forces Headquarters - South (SFHQ-S)[33][34]

* 11 Division, based at the Panagoda Cantonment, Western Province
* Operation Command Colombo, Colombo
* Area Headquarters Kandy, Kandy
* Area Headquarters Hambantota, Hambantota
* Area Headquarters Galle, Galle
* Area Headquarters Diyatalawa, Diyatalawa
* Sub Area Headquarters Ratnapura, Ratnapura
* Sub Area Headquarters Kurunegala, Kurunegala

Independent Divisions

* 53 Division, based at Mankulam [29]
* 58 Division, based at Paranthan (formally refereed to as the Task Force 1) [29]

Independent Brigades

* Air Mobile Brigade
* Mechanized Infantry Brigade
* Armored Brigade
* Special Forces Brigade
* Commando Brigade
* Artillery Brigade
* Engineer Brigade
* Signals Brigade

Disbanded

* 54 Division, based at Elephant Pass[35]
* 2 Division
* 3 Division

[edit] Training

General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU) formed in 1981 and situated in Ratmalana, fourteen kilometers south of Colombo, is Sri Lanka's only university specializing in defense studies. Each year, approximately fifty cadets from all three services are admitted to the university (aged 18–22) to participate in a three-year program of academic work and basic training.[26][28]

Junior field officers of the army and their counterparts of the Navy and Air Force are given advanced training and education at the Defence Services Command and Staff College (DSCSC) at Batalanda, Makola which was established in 1997 as the Army Command and Staff College.

Basic officer training is carried out at the Sri Lanka Military Academy (SLMA) (formally the Army Training Center) situated in Diyatalawa, in the Badulla District. The officer cadets graduating from the academy are commissioned as officers in the regular and volunteer forces. The course for officer cadets runs for ninety weeks and includes training in tactics and administration which helps prepare the cadets to take up the positions of platoon commanders. The course consisted of military and academic subjects and also trained the cadets physically. The course helps to promote leadership qualities and the understanding of each one’s role as an officer and a servant of the state. Due to the lack of officers within the lower levels, the training process was sped up in the 1980s by developing a short commission course. The cadets were given a training of fifty-six weeks and devoted themselves to continue their careers in the military with the ten years of service for regular army officers and five years of service for volunteer officers.

Training for the new recruits are mostly carried out at several locations followed by additional training (both officers and other ranks) at the Infantry Training School in Minneriya, the Combat Training School in Ampara, the Army Training School in Maduru Oya while non commissioned officers receive training at the Non Commissioned Officers Training School at Kala Oya. All these establishments come under the control of the Army Headquarters. Specialist and additional training is given by specialist training schools, regimental training centers and individual field units.[26][28]

As the armed forces of Sri Lanka have a limited indigenous training facilities, especially in advanced roles, they have depended greatly on military training provided by foreign countries. The United Kingdom played a major role in the early years following independence and have continued to be an important source of military expertise to the Sri Lankan military. Other sources include Pakistan, Australia, Malaysia, and the United States. Additionally, in an agreement reached in 1984, Israeli security personnel (reportedly from Shin Bet, the Israeli counterespionage and internal security organization) trained army officers in counterinsurgency techniques.[26]
[edit] Training establishments

Training Centers[36]

1. Sri Lanka Military Academy (SLMA)
2. Army Training School]] (ATS)
3. Infantry Training Centre (ITC)
4. Combat Training School (CTS)
5. Army Physical Education Centre (APEC)
6. Volunteer Force Training School (VFTS)
7. Marksman Sniper Training School (MSTS)
8. Non Commission Officer Training School (NCOTS)
9. Language Training School (LTS)
10. Institute of Peacekeeping Support Operations Training Sri Lanka (IPSOT-SL)



Regimental Training Centers[36]

1. Armoured Cops Training Centre
2. School Of Artillery
3. Sri Lanka School of Military Engineering
4. School Of Mechanical Engineers
5. School Of Signals
6. Commando Regiment Training School
7. Engineer Service School
8. Sri Lanka Army Service Corps. School
9. Sri Lanka Army Military School Of Nursing
10. Sri Lanka Army Ordnance School
11. Sri Lanka Electrical And Mechnaical Engineers School
12. Sri Lanka Corps of Military Police School
13. SriLanka Army General Service Corps. School

[edit] Personnel

The Sri Lanka Army presently stands at 120,000 strong[1] including 2,960 women plus an additional 10,000 personal in reserve.[37]
[edit] Parama Weera Vibhushanaya recipients

* Colonel A.F. Lafir †
* Captain Saliya Upul Aladeniya †
* Second Lieutenant K.W.T. Nissanka †
* Warrant Officer 2nd Class Pasan Gunasekera †
* Corporal Gamini Kularatne †
* Lance Corporal W.I.M. Seneviratne †
* Major G. S. Jayanath †

[edit] Notable fallen members

* Lt. General Denzil Kobbekaduwa † - One of the greatest generals in modern Sri Lanka and Overall Operations Commander, Northern Sector.[38]
* Lt. General Parami Kulatunga † - Former Deputy Chief of Staff of the Army.[38]
* Lt. General Nalin Angammana † - Former GOC 3 Division.[39]
* Maj. General Vijaya Wimalaratne † - Jaffna Brigade Commander & One of the greatest generals in modern Sri Lanka.[38]
* Maj. General Percy Fernando † - Former deputy GOC 54 Division.[39]
* Maj. General Larry Wijeratne † - Former brigade commander, 51-4 Brigade.[39]
* Maj. General Lakshman 'Lucky' Wijayaratne † - Former brigade commander, 22 Brigade.[39]
* Maj. General Susantha Mendis † - Former brigade commander, 51-2 Brigade.[39]
* Maj. General Ananda Hamangoda † - Former brigade commander, 51-2 Brigade.[40]
* Brigadier Bhathiya Jayatilleka † - former Brigade commander, 54-1 brigade
* Colonel Tuan Nizam Muthaliff - Former commanding officer 1st Battalion Military Intelligence Corps.[41]

[edit] Women in the Sri Lanka Army
Main article: Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps

The Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps (SLAWC) was formed on September 1, 1979 as an unarmed, noncombatant support unit. Set up with the assistance of the Women's Royal Army Corps, it was identical in structure to its parent organization, and its first generation of officer cadets was trained in Britain. Candidates were required to be between eighteen and twenty years old and to have passed the General Common Entrance (Ordinary level) examinations, while the Officer candidates must have passed the Advanced Level. Enlistment entailed a five-year service commitment (the same as for men), and recruits were not allowed to marry during this period. In the sixteen-week training course at the Army Training Center at the Diyatalawa Sri Lanka Military Academy, cadets were put through a program of drill and physical training similar to the men's program, with the exception of weapons and battle craft training. Female recruits were paid according to the same scale as the men, but were limited to service in nursing, communications, and clerical work. In late 1987, the first class of women graduates from the Viyanini Army Training Center were certified to serve as army instructors. But, from late 1987 - after hostilities began, the first batch of women graduates from the British Army's Women's Corp Center certified to serve as Army Instructors.[42]

Up to now, women officers have proved their ability and serve in varied specialized fields in the Service as control tower operators, electronic warfare technicians, radio material teletypists, automotive mechanics, aviation supply personnel, cryptographers, doctors, combat medic, lawyers, engineers and even aerial photographers.[43]

To meet the operational requirements in the field areas, the 2nd Volunteer Battalion of the Women’s Corps was also raised. A few officers from the regular counter part were attached to this unit to organize the command structure. They are currently employed in active combat duties in the northern and eastern parts of the island.

Many officers commencing with Lieutenant Colonel A.W. Thambiraja were appointed to command this unit from time to time. The first women’s corps officer to command the unit was Lieutenant Colonel Kumudini Weerasekara in 1992 and as of 2007 there were three female officers of the rank of Major General. At present there is one regular regiment and four volunteer regiments in the Women’s Corps.[44]
[edit] Complaints over survivors’ benefits

The Organisation for Disabled Soldiers has complained that compensation paid for war victims is inadequate. In August 2007, a spokesman for the organisation pointed out that the compensation paid to the families of soldiers killed during the war has remained flat for 23 years at Rs. 150,000, which has dwindled in value to the equivalent of US$1500. This amount is the same for all ranks, including generals. In contrast, however, the families of politicians are much more highly compensated; the family of the late Minister Mr. M. H. M. Ashroff was awarded Rs. 5 million (US$50,000) following his death in a helicopter crash.
[edit] Equipment

After the 1971 uprising, the army expanded its range of weapons from the original stock of World War II-era British Lee Enfield rifles, Sten Submachine guns, Vickers machine guns, Bren machine guns, 6-inch coastal guns, Daimler Armoured Cars, Bren Gun Carriers[45], 40 mm anti-aircraft guns, 3.7 inch heavy anti-aircraft guns and 4.2-inch heavy mortars. New sources of weaponry in the mid-to-late 1970s included the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and China - countries with which the leftist Bandaranaike government had close ties. China continued to be an important source of arms well into the 1990s.[26]

To meet the threat posed by predominantly the LTTE, Army purchased modern military hardware including 50-caliber Heavy machine guns, Rocket Propelled Grenade Launchers, Night Vision Devices, 106 mm Recoilless rifles, 60 mm and 81 mm Mortars, 40 mm Grenade Launchers and some Sniper Rifles. Refurbished armored personnel carriers were added to the 'A' vehicle fleet of the 1st Reece Regiment, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps. These APCs enabled the Armoured Corps to have their own assault troops to provide close contact protection to their Alvis Saladin and Ferret Scout Cars which were vulnerable to anti-tank weapons. The capability of the Sri Lanka Artillery was enhanced with the introduction of Ordnance QF 25 pounders.[26][46] Chinese-made 122 mm, 130 mm and 152 mm howitzers were introduced to the Sri Lankan Army in 1995 and 1998 whilst 122 mm Multi Barrel Rocket Launchers (MBRL), were first used in 2000 by the Sri Lanka Army.[47]

Though the weapons were obsolete at the time of purchase, the Government security forces found them to be successful in combat. Land mines proved to be the most lethal threat to the security forces, as many mines have been deployed against government forces by the LTTE in the Northern and Eastern Provinces. These mines are deployed with normalcy against government trucks and buses, with a high rate of casualty. These land mines weighed approximately 50 - 100kgs, against which no armoured vehicle that the SLA possessed was able to withstand the blast effect. Therefore the South African made Buffel was introduced to service in 1985 to reduce damage due to land mines. By 1987 the Army's own Unicorn was also developed to a level so that they too matched the capabilities of the Buffels from South Africa, this was followed up by the newer Unibuffel class[48]. Both the Unicorn and the Unibuffel are assembled by the Sri Lanka Electrical & Mechanical Engineers.[26][46]

In recent years, Sri Lanka has become increasingly reliant on China for weapons.[49] This is due to most European nations and the United States Governments passing regulations about the selling of weaponry to nations which are suffering from internal conflict.[50] However in light of recent attacks by the LTTE, the United States has expressed its intent to maintain military training assistance and possibly increase it should the violence continue.

China has no such regulations upon their arms producers, and some see the sales as an attempt to gain political influence with strategically-important Sri Lanka.[51] Sri Lanka also continues to receive a variety of weapons from Britain, Pakistan, Israel and other former suppliers.[49][52]
[edit] Armour
Type Origin Quantity Notes
Main Battle Tanks
T-55/T-55AM2[48] Soviet Union 140+
Type 69[53] China 20+
Type 59 China 80+
Light Tanks
Type 63 China N/A Amphibious
Infantry fighting vehicles
BMP-3[54] Soviet Union 45
BMP-2 Soviet Union 521
BMP-1 Soviet Union 13
Armoured personnel carriers
Norinco Type 89 (YW534)[55] China N/A Tracked
Type 85 (YW531H) China N/A Tracked, Amphibious
Type 63 (YW531)[56] China N/A Tracked
BTR-80 Soviet Union 33 wheeled
Type 92 (WZ551) China 200 wheeled
BTR-152 Soviet Union N/A wheeled, operational state unknown
Unibuffel Sri Lanka N/A Locally manufactured, Mine-protected APC
Unicorn Sri Lanka N/A Locally manufactured, Mine-protected APC
Buffel South Africa N/A Mine-protected APC
HUSSAR United Kingdom N/A wheeled, operational state unknown
Shorland S55 United Kingdom N/A wheeled, operational state unknown
Hotspur[28] United Kingdom N/A wheeled, operational state unknown
Reconnaissance vehicles
Alvis Saladin United Kingdom N/A wheeled
Alvis Saracen United Kingdom N/A wheeled, operational state unknown
Daimler Ferret United Kingdom N/A wheeled, operational state unknown
Engineering Support Vehicles
VT-55[57] Soviet Union 16 Armoured recovery vehicle
MT-55A[58] Soviet Union 8 Armoured vehicle-launched bridge
[edit] Artillery
Type Origin Quantity Notes
Rocket artillery
RM-70 Multiple rocket launcher[57] Czechoslovakia 30+ 122.4 mm Multiple rocket launcher
BM-21 Multiple rocket launcher[57] Soviet Union 5 122.4 mm Multiple rocket launcher
Towed artillery
Type 66 152 mm gun-howitzer China 36 152 mm gun-howitzer
Type 59 130mm field gun China 12 130 mm field gun
Type 60 122mm howitzer China N/A 122 mm howitzer
Ordnance QF 25 pounder United Kingdom N/A field guns - Ceremonial Gun Troop
Ordnance QF 75 mm United Kingdom N/A field guns - Ceremonial Gun Troop
Mortars
Type 86 (W86) China 55 120 mm towed mortar
Type 84 (W84) China N/A 82 mm mortar
Type 89 China N/A 60 mm light mortar
Weapon Locating Radar
AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder Radar United States N/A Weapon Locating and Counter-battery Radar
[edit] Infantry weapons
Handguns
Italy Beretta M9 Pistol
Austria Glock 17
United Kingdom Enfield revolver
Assault Rifles
Soviet Union AK-47 Assault rifles
Czechoslovakia Sa 58 Assault rifles[citation needed]
People's Republic of China Type 56 Assault rifles[59]
People's Republic of China Type 81 Assault rifles[60]
West Germany Heckler & Koch G3 Assault rifles[61]
Belgium FN FNC Assault rifles (replaced the FN FAL as far
back as in 1981)
United States M16 Assault rifles[62]
United States M4 Carbine
Singapore SAR-80 Assault rifles[59]
People's Republic of China Type 95 Assault rifles
Sub-Machine guns
West Germany H&K MP5 Submachine Guns[59]
Israel Uzi Submachine Guns[59]
United Kingdom Sterling submachine guns[59]

Sniper Rifles
United Kingdom Accuracy International L96A1 Sniper Rifles[63]
West Germany Heckler & Koch PSG1 Sniper Rifles
Soviet Union Dragunov Sniper Rifles[64]
Machine guns
People's Republic of China Type 80 GPMG (Chinese version of Russian PKM)[65]
Belgium FN Minimi General purpose machine gun[59]
Belgium FN MAG General purpose machine gun[59]
People's Republic of China Type 56 LMG (Chinese version of Russian RPD)[26]
West Germany HK21 Belt-fed light machine gun[66]
Grenade launchers
South Africa Milkor MGL Grenade launcher[59]
West Germany HK 69 Breech-loading grenade launcher[59]
United States M203 Grenade launcher[59]
Rocket launchers
Russia RPO-A Shmel man-portable rocket launcher
People's Republic of China Type 69 RPG rocket launchers (Chinese version of RPG-7)[26]
Anti-tank missiles
People's Republic of China Baktar-Shikan Anti-tank guided missile
[edit] See also

* Awards and decorations of the military of Sri Lanka
* Sri Lanka Military Academy
* Sri Lankan Civil War
* Rehabilitation Directorat, Sri Lanka Army

[edit] Further reading

* Army, Sri Lanka. (1st Edition - October 1999). Sri Lanka army: 50 years on, 1949-1999 ISBN 978-955-8089-02-6

[edit] References

1. ^ a b c "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2000". U.S. State Department. February 23, 2001. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
2. ^ Army now 150,000 strong recruits more, readies for big battles on the Vanni front. The Island
3. ^ "Deadly arsenals dot Sri Lanka". Richard M Bennett (Asia Times Online). 5 August 2006. http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/HH05Df02.html.
4. ^ Army, Navy get new commanders
5. ^ "Commander-in-Chief Completes One Year in Office". Media Center for National Security. 2007-03-08. http://www.rnhit.com/mcns/articles/commander-in-chief.html?PHPSESSID=8a9729bc19d560d81319bc8bee3f380a. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
6. ^ "Sri Lanka Army History, The Ancient Time". Sri Lanka Army. http://www.army.lk/history2.php. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Army, Sri Lanka (October 1999). "Chapter 1". Sri Lanka Army, "50 YEARS ON" - 1949-1999 (1st Edition ed.). Colombo: Sri Lanka Army. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-955-8089-02-6.
8. ^ "The Portuguese in Sri Lanka (1505-1658)". WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka. http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/portu2.htm. Retrieved 2004-06-30.
9. ^ "Indias.com, Sri Lankan Army". Indias. http://www.indias.com/php/wiki-Sri_Lankan_Army. Retrieved 2006-02-04.
10. ^ "History of the Sri Lanka Light Infantry Regiment, Sri Lanka Army". Sri Lanka Army. http://www.army.lk/lightinfan.php. Retrieved 2006-02-04.
11. ^ a b "Establishment, Sri Lanka Army". Sri Lanka Army. http://army.lk/org.php. Retrieved 2006-02-04.
12. ^ a b Sergei de Silva-Ranasinghe looks back at the early days of the Sri Lanka Army
13. ^ a b An evolving army and its role through time, Sergei de Silva- Ranasinghe’s article on the early days of the Sri Lanka Army
14. ^ "Sri Lanka Army Marks 50 Years". Washingtonpost, AP News. October 10, 1999. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/19991010/aponline085414_000.htm.
15. ^ Sri Lanka's Tamil Tigers admit defeat Christian Science Monitor - May 17, 2009
16. ^ a b "Sri Lanka Light Infantry UN Peacekeeping Operations". Sri Lanka Army. http://www.army.lk/lightinfan.php. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
17. ^ "2 U.N. peacekeepers killed in Haiti fighting". San Diego Union Tribune. March 21, 2005. http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050321/news_1n21world.html.
18. ^ Sri Lankan troops in Haiti honoured
19. ^ a b "Haiti: Over 100 Sri Lankan blue helmets repatriated on disciplinary grounds – UN". United Nations. 2007-11-02. http://www.un.org/apps/news/ticker/tickerstory.asp?NewsID=24514. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
20. ^ Williams, Carol J. (2007-12-15). "U.N. confronts another sex scandal". http://articles.latimes.com/2007/dec/15/world/fg-haitisex15. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
21. ^ a b "Sri Lanka to probe UN sex claims". BBC. 2007-11-03. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7076284.stm. Retrieved 2007-11-05.
22. ^ Reddy, B. Muralidhar (2007-11-05). "Part of Sri Lankan contingent in Haiti to be sent back". The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/2007/11/04/stories/2007110457201800.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-05.
23. ^ "UN confirms sex charges". Sundaytimes. 2008-03-30. http://www.sundaytimes.lk/080330/News/news0015.html. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
24. ^ Haiti - MINUSTAH - Facts and Figures
25. ^ New Chief of Staff Major General Samarasinghe Takes Office
26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Sri Lanka, The Army". Photius Coutsoukis. http://www.photius.com/countries/sri_lanka/national_security/sri_lanka_national_security_the_army.html. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
27. ^ 'Tamil unit' for Sri Lanka's army BBC - June 29, 2009
28. ^ a b c d e f "Military Balance, Sri Lanka". Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. http://www.ipcs.org/Military_militaryBalance2.jsp?database=1002&country2=Sri%20Lanka. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
29. ^ a b c d e f g Two Security Forces Headquarters established in Mullaitivu, Kilinochchi
30. ^ Security Forces on a realistic path to achieve the set target, Dailynews
31. ^ Bitter battles, heavy toll, Tiger strongholds under siege
32. ^ Two New SF Headquarters Become Operational
33. ^ New name for JOH
34. ^ Sixth Security Forces Headquarters to Take Charge of Security in South
35. ^ Eelam War IV: Tigers Face Defeat
36. ^ a b "Training, Sri Lanka Army". Sri Lanka Army. http://army.lk/train.php. Retrieved 2006-02-04.
37. ^ "Sri Lanka". Nations Encyclopedia. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Sri-Lanka-ARMED-FORCES.html. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
38. ^ a b c Kanagaraarachchi, Ramani (2007-01-20). "Heroes who made the supreme sacrifice". Daily News (Associated Newspapers of Ceylon). http://www.dailynews.lk/2007/01/20/spice01.asp. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
39. ^ a b c d e Heroes who made the supreme sacrifice
40. ^ Ratnayake, Brigadier Daya (2005-07-30). "Noble in death as in life". The Sunday Times (Wijeya Newspapers Ltd). http://sundaytimes.lk/050703/plus/appreciation.html. Retrieved 2007-08-18.
41. ^ De Silva, Senaka (2005-06-01). "Senior Army officer shot dead". Daily Mirror (Wijeya Newspapers Ltd). http://www.dailymirror.lk/2005/06/01/front/1.asp. Retrieved 2007-06-03.
42. ^ "Sri Lankan Army Women's Corps". About, Inc. http://womenshistory.about.com/library/ency/blwh_sri_lanka_women_military.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
43. ^ "An officer and a lady: You've come a long way, lass.". Sunday Observer. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2006/10/08/zin01.asp. Retrieved 2006-10-08.
44. ^ "Sri Lanka Army Women’s Corps, Sri Lanka Army". Sri Lanka Army. http://www.army.lk/regiment_regular_19.php. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
45. ^ Michael K. Cecil - Sri Lanka’s Military: The Search For A Mission, [1].
46. ^ a b Army, Sri Lanka (October 1999). "Chapter 1". Sri Lanka Army, "50 YEARS ON" - 1949-1999 (1st Edition ed.). Colombo: Sri Lanka Army. p. 393. ISBN 978-955-8089-02-6.
47. ^ http://www.army.lk/org2.php
48. ^ a b "SFrom Unicorn to Unibuffel". sundayobserver. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2004/04/25/fea22.html.
49. ^ a b Bedi, Rahul (2007-06-02). "Sri Lanka turns to Pakistan, China for military needs". IANS (Urdustan.com Network). http://www.indianmuslims.info/news/2007/jun/02/sri_lanka_turns_pakistan_china_military_needs.html. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
50. ^ "Small Arms and Light Weapons Conference Report" (PDF). Judith McDaniel. http://www.globalactionpw.org/un/SALW_PoA_RC_%20REPORT.pdf. Retrieved 2006-07-23.
51. ^ "No Nonsense guide to The Arms Trade". Gideon Burrows. http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Weapons/Arms_Trade.html. Retrieved 2005-11-19.
52. ^ "Naval surveillance is the millstone around LTTE's neck". P.K. Balachanddran. http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/features/20031017naval_surveillance_millstone_LTTE.htm. Retrieved 2003-10-17.
53. ^ "Type 69 Main Battle Tank". GlobalSecurity.org. July 31, 2005. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/type-69.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
54. ^ "Sri Lanka (LTTE)". International Institute For Strategic Studies. March 15, 2007. http://acd.iiss.org/armedconflict/Mainpages/dsp_ConflictWeapons.asp?ConflictID=174. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
55. ^ "ZSD89 Armoured Personnel Carrier". sinodefence.com. 2007. http://www.sinodefence.com/army/armour/zsd89.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
56. ^ "[//www.nation.lk/2006/10/15/newsfe1.htm Type 63]". nation.lk. //www.nation.lk/2006/10/15/newsfe1.htm.
57. ^ a b c "United Nations Register of Conventional Arms" (PDF). United Nations. August 21, 2003. http://disarmament.un.org/library.nsf/c793d171848bac2b85256d7500700384/c7b9a51a4973f6e585256dc100585789/$FILE/sg58.203.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-16.
58. ^ Saferworld's research project on arms and security in EU Associate Countries, Czech Republic
59. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Smith, Chris (October 2003) (PDF). In the Shadow of a Cease-fire: The Impacts of Small Arms Availability and Misuse in Sri Lanka. Small Arms Survey. http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/files/sas/publications/o_papers_pdf/2003-op11-sri_lanka.pdf.
60. ^ "T 81 Assault Rifle". SinoDefence. http://www.sinodefence.com/army/small_arms/type81rifle.asp. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
61. ^ International, Amnesty; International Secretariat, AI Ireland, Omega Foundation (PDF). Undermining Global Security: the European Union’s arms exports (1st Edition ed.). Amnesty International. ISBN 0-86210-356-8. http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/files/portal/spotlight/ammunition/ammun_pdf/2004_amnesty_international.pdf. Retrieved 14 2007.
62. ^ "Profiling the Small Arms Industry". Arms Trade Resource Center. World Policy Institute. November 2000. http://www.worldpolicy.org/projects/arms/reports/smallarms.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
63. ^ "Accuracy International L96A1". www.MilitaryFactory.com. January 16, 2009. http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms_id=34. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
64. ^ "Trans-National Crime and Light Weapons Proliferation: Security Implications for the State". Tara Kartha. IDSA. August 15, 2002. http://www.cpdsindia.org/globalhumansecurity/trans-national.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
65. ^ "Biography of Mikhail Kalashnikov". VRQ International, Inc.. January 14, 2004. http://www.vodkakalashnikov.com/biography.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
66. ^ "If You're Involved in Resolving the". ibiblio.org. January 5, 1999. http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199901/msg00057.html. Retrieved 2007-03-15.

Mahinda Rajapaksa

Mahinda Rajapaksa (Sinhala: මහින්ද රාජපක්ෂ, pronounced [maˈhində ˈraːɟəˌpakʂə]; full name Percy Mahendra Rajapaksa; born November 18, 1945) is the 6th and current executive President of Sri Lanka and Commander in Chief of the Sri Lankan Armed Forces. A lawyer by profession, Rajapaksa was first elected to the Parliament of Sri Lanka in 1970, and served as prime minister from April 6, 2004 until his victory in the 2005 Presidential election. He was sworn in for a six-year term as president on November 19, 2005. He was conferred with Doctor of Law by the University of Colombo on September 06, 2009[1]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Early life and career
o 1.1 In Opposition
* 2 Political career
o 2.1 Appointment as Cabinet Minister
o 2.2 Leader of the Opposition
* 3 Premiership
* 4 Presidency (November 2005 - Present)
o 4.1 Dispute with General Sarath Fonseka
* 5 Political positions
* 6 Family and personal life
* 7 Cultural and political image
* 8 Controversies
o 8.1 Helping Hambantota case
o 8.2 Media Freedom
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 External links
o 11.1 Official sites
o 11.2 News media
o 11.3 Other links

Early life and career

Rajapaksa was born in Weerakatiya in the southern rural district of Hambantota.[2] He hails from a well known political family in Sri Lanka. His father, D. A. Rajapaksa, was a prominent politician, independence agitator, Member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister of Agriculture and Land in Wijeyananda Dahanayake's government. D.M. Rajapaksa, his uncle, was a State Counselor for Hambantota in the 1930s who started wearing the earthy brown shawl to represent kurakkan (finger millet) cultivated by the people of his area, whose cause he championed throughout his life. It is from his example that Rajapaksa wears his characteristic shawl.[2]

Rajapaksa was educated at Richmond College, Galle before moving to Nalanda College Colombo and later Thurstan College, Colombo.[2] He also had a few cameo roles as a movie actor in Sinhalese movies and worked as a library assistant at Vidyodaya University.[3]

Following the death of his father in 1967, Rajapaksa took over as the SLFP candidate for Beliatta constituency and was elected to Parliament in 1970 as the youngest Member of Parliament at the age of 24.[3] Later he studied law at the Sri Lanka Law College and took oaths as an attorney-at-law in November 1977.[4] Throughout his parliamentary career, except for the period from 1994-2001 when he was a minister, he continued his law practice in Tangalle.[2]

He lost his parliamentary seat in the landslide defeat of the SLFP in 1977.[2] During the 1985 by-election campaign in the Mulkirigala electorate in Hambantota district, for which his brother Chamal Rajapaksa contested representing the SLFP, during this time Mahinda was remanded for allegations of possession of unauthorized fire arms, but he was cleared of charges due to lack of evidence.
In Opposition

In 1989 he was re-elected to Parliament to represent Hambantota District under Proportional Representation. He came into prominence as a leader, together with Manorani Saravanamuttu, of the Mothers Front, which organised the mothers of the "disappeared" in the white terror of 1988-90 instigated by a rebel group that called themselves Deshapremi Jathika Vyaparaya or 'Patriotic National Movement'.[2]
Political career
Appointment as Cabinet Minister

In 1994, following the election victory of the People's Alliance a political front led by Sri Lanka Freedom Party and headed by Chandrika Kumaratunga, Rajapaksa was appointed Minister of Labour. He held this post until 1997 when, following a cabinet reshuffle, his portfolio was changed to Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.[2]
Leader of the Opposition

When the United National Party (UNP) defeated the People's Alliance in the 2001 elections, Rajapaksa lost his position in the Government. He was however appointed as Leader of the Opposition in March 2002.[2]
Premiership

After the Parliamentary Elections of 2004, in which the United People's Freedom Alliance was gained a slim majority in parliament. Rajapaksa was sworn in as Sri Lanka’s 13th Prime Minister on April 6, 2004.[2] While Rajapaksa was the Prime Minister, he also held the Ministry of Highways.
Presidency (November 2005 - Present)
Presidental styles of
Mahinda Rajapaksa
Reference style His Excellency President Mahinda Rajapaksa
His Excellency Mahinda Rajapaksa, President of Sri Lanka
Spoken style President Rajapaksa
Alternative style H.E.

Rajapaksa was chosen by the Sri Lanka Freedom Party for the Presidential Election held on November 17, 2005. Rajapaksa prime opponent was former Prime Minister and Opposition Leader, Ranil Wickremasinghe, the leader of the United National Party in this election. Rajapaksa defeated Wickremasinghe narrowly by 190,000 votes and took office as President of Sri Lanka on November 19, 2005. This has often been cited as being a result of the LTTE calling for a boycott of the polls in the North and East from tamil voters in areas within their control. Most voters in these areas were forcibly restrained from voting, and it is common knowledge that they would have favored Ranil Wickremasignhe and his UNP party in the said election..[5] Rajapaksa received 50.3% of the vote.

After becoming President of Sri Lanka, Rajapaksa reshuffled the cabinet and took the portfolios of Defence and Finance in the new cabinet, which was sworn on November 23, 2005.
Dispute with General Sarath Fonseka

A rift between Rajapaska and his former Armed Forces Chief General Sarath Fonseka has recently surfaced. It mainly involves a dispute over which of the two, the political leader or the military leader, were in fact responsible for the defeat of the LTTE and the reconquering of the North and East. In fact, according to Fonseka and the Sri Lankan government, he was asked by the Department of Homeland Security to give evidence against the president and administration on war-crimes charges. The government was quick to issue a press conference in which they stated that he was not allowed to give out any confidential information. Many say that this is solid proof of that the President and his General are currently on very bad terms.[6]

Though those in the Government are currently denying the existence of this dispute between the two, there is much proof to the contrary. In a speech that the General gave to the army on the occasion of its 60th anniversary, he repeatedly stressed his personal role in the recent military victory of the army over the LTTE.[7]

The latest on the matter is that the General is considering running against Rajapaska in the upcoming Presidential Elections as an opposition candidate.[7]

On the 15th of November 2009, the Rajapaksa ordered Fonseka to leave his post and the army with immediate effect through a letter from his secretary.[8]

The following day, the President named Air Force Chief Roshan Goonatilake as the new Chief of Defence Staff.[9]

Latest news emerges as rift within Rajapaksa Family, because of General Sarath Fonseka's resign. Spouse of President Rajapaksa, Shiranthi Rajapaksa had query with President's sister in-law, Ioma, regrding Sarath Fonseka affair. This sparked wave within Rajapaksa family. [10]
Political positions

Although styling himself as a man of peace and a willing negotiator, Rajapaksa signaled his intention to end the peace process once in power by forging an alliance with the Sinhalese nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna and the Jathika Hela Urumaya. The JVP had opposed the original 2002 peace process as treasonous.
President Mahinda Rajapaksa at the World Economic Forum session in Jordan on May 15, 2009 just 3 days before the death of LTTE head Vellupillai Prabhakaran

The agreement made with Rajapakse included provisions which called for a revision of the ceasefire agreement to give the military broader powers against the LTTE, as well as ruling out of any devolution of power to the Tamil people. Furthermore, the cessation of aid to the Tsunami struck LTTE occupied areas, and the sidelining of the Norwegian facilitators due to their alleged bias were included. [1]

Immediately following his election victory, a series of mine blasts blamed on the LTTE in the country claimed the lives of many off-duty servicemen and civilians, pushing the country back to the brink of war.[11] Following the closure by the LTTE of a reservoir supplying water to 15,000 people named "Mavil Aru" in government controlled areas on July 21, 2006,[12] the Sri Lankan military launched an offensive against the LTTE, bringing the entire reservoir under government control. Further military engagements have led to the LTTE been driven out of the entire Eastern Province of Sri Lanka and lost 95% of the territory they controlled.[13][14][15][16]

The content of the President's historic speech in Tamil at the UN was an effort to establish that he is a people's leader representing all the peoples of Sri Lanka, including the Tamil minority.

“While my mother tongue is Sinhala, let me elaborate a few thoughts in Tamil. Sinhala and Tamil are the two languages of the people of Sri Lanka. Both these have been used through the centuries, are rich in literature, and are widely used in my country, with recognition as Official Languages.” He said in Tamil adding,

“With the widening of democracy in our country, the bonds between the Sinhala and Tamil people of Sri Lanka will grow stronger and remain a major force for its future development. We will march towards a richer freedom and lasting unity that await us as a nation.”
Family and personal life

He is married to former beauty queen Shiranthi Wickremasinghe, a Roman Catholic[17] and daughter of the late Commander E. P. Wickramasinghe, SLN and Mrs. Violet Wickramasinghe [18] and has three sons, Namal, Yoshitha and Rohitha. Namal Rajapaksa is active in politics while his brother Yoshitha was commissioned as an Acting Sub Lieutenant in the Sri Lanka Navy in March 2009 [19] and appointed a Aide-de-camp to the President in 2006.
Cultural and political image
Controversies
Helping Hambantota case

Mahinda Rajapaksa has been accused of corruption by the opposition before his election as President, citing the "Helping Hambantota" case, where he was accused of appropriating close to USD 830,000 into a Treasury approved private fund, known as Helping Hambantota, to help the victims of the Boxing Day tsunami in Hambantota - his hometown and electoral district. Before the election, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka put a hold on the case. Later dismissing the case, Chief Justice Sarath Silva said the court case had been brought as soon as Rajapaksa was nominated as a presidential candidate. "The court sees this as an attempt to get political mileage for [UNP leader] Ranil Wickramasinghe and to discredit Mahinda Rajapaksa." It was told in parliament that the cabinet was aware of the existence of the Helping Hambantota fund. His office said he had held donations in Helping Hambantota fund to speed up the rate at which aid money was being handed out to victims of the 26 December, 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The money in question had been put in a state account and Rajapaksa had not taken "even a cent" for his use, then Prime Minister's secretary Lalith Weeratunga told the AFP news agency at the time.[20]
Media Freedom

During the Rajapaksa administration the Reporters without borders index, ranked Sri Lanka 165th among 173 countries in its annual worldwide press freedom index.[21] The Human Rights Watch research alleged that the Sri Lankan government is responsible for widespread abductions.[22]

President of Sri Lanka

The President of Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is the elected head of state and the head of government. The President is a dominant political figure in Sri Lanka. The office was created in 1978 but has grown so powerful there have been calls to restrict or even eliminate its power. The current President is Mahinda Rajapaksa.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Sri Lanka's executive presidency
* 2 List of presidents
* 3 Other information
* 4 Last election
* 5 See also
* 6 External links

[edit] Sri Lanka's executive presidency

At independence, executive power in Ceylon resided with the monarch of Ceylon, represented by the Governor-General, which was exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister. The 1972 constitution replaced the monarch with a president, but that remained a mostly ceremonial position.

The 1978 constitution moved from a Westminster-based political system into one modeled on France. As in France, a new, directly elected President with a longer term and independence from Parliament was created. The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, head of the Cabinet, appoints the prime minister, and could dissolve parliament (after one year has passed since the convening of parliament after a parliamentary election)[citation needed]

In practice, the Sri Lankan presidency was much more powerful than the President of France. French presidents traditionally deal only with defense and foreign policy, leaving domestic affairs to the Prime Minister. Sri Lankan presidents are involved with every aspect of the government and are able to hold ministries, or can bypass the cabinet posts by delegating decisions to the Presidential Secretariat.

Presidents have little constraints on their power and they cannot be taken to court. However they can be impeached by a two-thirds majority in Parliament. They can place the country in a state of emergency, under which they can override any law passed by Parliament[citation needed] and promulgate any regulation without needing legislative approval. However, to prolong the state of emergency for more than a month parliamentary approval is needed.

At the opening of Parliament, the President delivers an address similar to a Speech from the Throne, outlining government policy.

The President has the power to appoint Attorneys-at-Laws to the position of President's Counsel and military personal to the post of Aide de Camp to the President.

In the 1994 election, Chandrika Kumaratunga of the People's Alliance promised to be the last Executive President, bringing in constitutional reforms to return to Westminster-style government. This did not happen during her time in office. While some political parties have expressed their concerns on the executive presidency the abolishment of it is unlikely within the current Sri Lankan political framework.
[edit] List of presidents
Main article: List of Presidents of Sri Lanka
[edit] Other information
The Old Parliament Building the near the Galle Face Green, now the Presidential Secretariat
Main article: Presidential Secretariat

The official residence of the president is the President's House (formally the Queen's House as the residences of the Governor General) in Colombo. However the president's office is the Presidential Secretariat which is at the former Parliament building in Colombo, where many formal functions takes place. Other presidential residences include:

* the President's Pavilion, in Kandy, is a presidential residences used for (rare) state functions;
* the Queen's Cottage is the official presidential vacationing residence in the town of Nuwara Eliya.

In recent years from time to time Prime Minister's House, commonly referred to as Temple Tree's, which has been the official residence of the Prime Minister since 1948, has been used by presidents.
[edit] Last election
e • d Summary of the 17 November 2005 Sri Lanka presidential election results Candidate Party Votes %
Mahinda Rajapakse United People's Freedom Alliance 4,887,152 50.29
Ranil Wickremesinghe United National Party 4,706,366 48.43
Siritunga Jayasuriya United Socialist Party 35,425 0.36
Ashoka Suraweera Jathika Sangwardhena Peramuna 31,238 0.32
Victor Hettigoda Eksath Lanka Podujana Pakshaya 14,458 0.15
Chamil Jayaneththi New Left Front 9,296 0.10
Aruna de Soyza Ruhunu Janatha Party 7,685 0.08
Wimal Geeganage Sri Lanka National Front 6,639 0.07
Anura de Silva United Lalith Front 6,357 0.07
Ajith Arachchige Democratic Unity Alliance 5,082 0.05
Wije Dias Socialist Equality Party 3,500 0.04
Nelson Perera Sri Lanka Progressive Front 2,525 0.03
H. Dharmadwaja United National Alternative Front 1,316 0.01
Total 9,717,039
Registered Voters 13,327,160
Total Votes cast 9,826,778
Invalid Votes 109,739
Valid Votes cast 9,717,039